Family THEREVIDAE Newman, 1834

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Introduction

Australian Stiletto Flies (Family Therevidae)
The Therevidae are a cosmopolitan group found in a variety of habitats. In Australia, many genera are found in semiarid areas and dry sclerophyll forests, while few are found in wet sclerophyll forests and rainforests. Most Anabarhynchus species are associated with coastal scrub and sandy beaches; these habitats are exploited by therevids all over the world (Lyneborg 1992). Alpha-diversity can be quite high, for example the Warrumbungle Mountains area in New South Wales is home to more than 100 species. The adults, if they feed at all, are nectar feeders of blossoms. The snake-like larvae are very mobile, fast, voracious, fossorial predators of other soil arthropods but preferring Coleoptera larvae (Lyneborg 1992), often found in sandy, friable soils (English 1950). The larvae are characterised by a secondarily segmented abdomen and an apically spatulate tentorial rod in the head (Irwin & Lyneborg 1981).

Australia has the world's richest therevid fauna and the genera show an extraordinary degree of endemism. The Australian therevid fauna comprises over 350 described species however there are many undescribed species represented in collections. Field work regularly continues to uncover specimens not yet represented in collections so our estimate of numbers of undescribed species is still increasing. Of the 24 described genera, 21 are found only in this region. Agapophytine genera such as Agapophytus and Acraspisa are very species-rich in Australia and are also found in Papua New Guinea and Indonesia, respectively (Winterton & Irwin 2001; Winterton et al. 2001). Anabarhynchus, one of Australia's commonest genera, is also dominant in New Zealand, and close relatives are found in South America. Ectinorhynchus is also recorded from New Zealand, and close relatives are found in New Caledonia and Chile. Australia's aridity is geologically recent (beginning 25 mya) and many of its therevid species belong to morphologically similar species-swarms that may have radiated in this period, such as Anabarhynchus and Acraspisa; however, there are also ancient, clearly Gondwanan, links with Chilean taxa, such as Melanothereva, Pachyrrhiza and Entesia.

In contrast to much of the world's stiletto fly fauna, the adults of many species of Australian Therevidae are brightly coloured with generally hairless bodies. Some genera such as Agapophytus and Ectinorhynchus are wasp mimics with bright colours, long antennae, elongate bodies and behavioural modifications (Power 1998; Winterton and Irwin 2001). Many genera have patterned wings and males with distinctive silvery markings on the body. Many species show marked sexual dimorphism.

Collection
Most therevids are collected today by using Malaise traps erected across gullies. Net-sweeping of foliage is a productive way of sampling and generally produces more males than females. Many species of stiletto fly can be collected at mud or water in semi-arid and arid environments as therevids are strongly attracted to water (Ferguson & Lambkin 2006). Many genera of therevids have been collected on hill tops, including Acraspisa, Acupalpa, Taenogerella, Patanothrix, and Neodialineura (Winterton et al. 2001; Ferguson & Lambkin 2006).

One of the most intensive quantitative surveys of Therevidae was conducted in Australia in 1997-1998. A long-term Malaise trapping study near Brisbane was completed by Narelle Power as part of her Honours thesis at the University of Queensland. Narelle trapped therevid specimens using eleven 6 metre Hocks Malaise traps based in three diverse habitats: coastal heath on Bribie Island, sclerophyll forest in Brisbane Forest Park, and rainforest at Mt Glorious. The collections revealed a very diverse fauna of Therevidae in southeast Queensland. Over 1,000 Therevidae belonging to 15 genera and 52 species were collected over a 54 week period (Power 1998).

Observing therevids in the field is generally difficult as they are alert, easily disturbed, and move quickly and erratically. Thus sightings are generally brief. Males of some genera including Ectinorhynchus and Neodialineura display in communal swarms, taking advantage of sunlit clearings (Ferguson & Lambkin 2006). All female therevids, and most males including those of Bonjeania, Nanexila, and Parapsilocephala, are more drab, not having silvery tomentum covering the dorsal surface of the abdomen, and do not display: therefore they are more difficult to observe (Ferguson & Lambkin 2006).

Identification
Some species in other families of flies can sometimes be mistaken for Therevids. Adult stiletto flies have the following characteristics: 3 main antennal segments and apical style short; no mystax on the face; vertex of head not excavated; bristleform empodium between the tarsal claws; wing venation with vein M3 present, veins Rs & M not curved anteriorly.

An online Lucid key for identifying Australasian flies in the family Therevidae is available at http://www.cdfa.ca.gov/phpps/ppd/Lucid/Therevidae/Austherevid/key/Austherevid/Media/Html/opening_page.html (Winterton et al. 2005).

One of the most intensive quantitative surveys of Therevidae was conducted in Australia in 1997-1998. A long-term Malaise trapping study near Brisbane was completed by Narelle Power as part of her Honours thesis at the University of Queensland. Narelle trapped therevid specimens using eleven 6 metre Focks Malaise traps based in three diverse habitats: coastal heath on Bribie Island, sclerophyll forest in Brisbane Forest Park, and rainforest at Mt Glorious. The collections revealed a very diverse fauna of Therevidae in southeast Queensland. Over 1,000 Therevidae belonging to 15 genera and 52 species were collected over a 54 week period (Power 1998).

Subfamilies
In Australia there are three major groups, with one currently recognised endemic subfamily, the Agapophytinae (Winterton et al. 2001) distinguished by the velutum patches on the fore femora (as well as hind and ventral surface of gonocoxites), no antero-ventral seta subapically on hind femur, and usually wing cell m3 closed. The cosmopolitan Therevinae are represented by the Anabarhynchus genus-group; often stout flies that have no velutum patches on femora or gonocoxites, usually have a small number of long hair-like adpressed setae below the posterior thoracic spiracle, and hind femora often with simple erect setae and dorsally adpressed, whitish, semi-scaly setae. The placement of the Taenogera genus-group (Winterton et al. 1999b ) remains a challenge. The Taenogera genus-group are usually fine-bodied flies with an open wing cell m3, no velutum patches on fore femora (or ventral surface of hind femora and gonocoxites except in some Ectinorhynchus), and usually a single antero-ventral seta subapically on hind femur.

Several important monographs were published in the early 20th century (White 1914, 1915; Mann 1928, 1929, 1933). A large number of descriptive studies have been published since Irwin and Lyneborg (1989) last catalogued this region, with the majority completed in the last 20 years (Winterton & Irwin 1999; Winterton et al. 1999a, b; Winterton 2000; Winterton et al. 2000; Lyneborg 2001; Winterton & Irwin 2001; Winterton et al. 2001; Metz et al. 2003; Hill & Winterton 2004; Lambkin et al. 2005; Winterton 2006, 2007a, b, c, d, 2009; Winterton 2011). Presently, major revisions are being undertaken by individual authors on Ectinorhynchus (Lambkin) and Acraspisa and Parapsilocephala (Winterton), with still more new genera being described.

Therevid PEET was an intensive study of world Therevidae by a team of investigators headed by Dr Michael Irwin supported from 1995 to 2005 by US National Science Foundation Partnerships for Enhancing Expertise in Taxonomy (PEET) and Schlinger Foundation funds (http://www.inhs.uiuc.edu/research/therevid/program.html). Therevid PEET led to a burst of activity of taxonomic research into Therevidae, especially the Australasian therevid fauna. As part of Therevid PEET the database Mandala (http://www.inhs.uiuc.edu/research/mandala/index.html ) was developed to support four major realms of data acquisition and management for systematics and biodiversity studies: specimens, literature, taxonomic names, and illustrations. Mandala uses the popular cross-platform database application, FileMaker® Pro. The Therevid Project WebMandala search interface (http://www.inhs.uiuc.edu/research/mandala/TherevidWebMandala.html ) uses a stand-alone version of Mandala optimized for rapid PHP searching by periodically exporting updated data from the production database.

 

General References

English, K.M.I. 1950. Notes on the morphology and biology of Anabarhynchus fasciatus Macq. and other Australian Therevidae (Diptera, Therevidae). Proceedings of the Linnean Society of New South Wales 75: 345-359

Ferguson, D.J. & Lambkin, C.L. 2006. Behavioral observations of Australian stiletto flies from south-eastern New South Wales (Diptera: Therevidae). Australian Entomologist 33(3): 123-132

Hill, H.N. & Winterton, S.L. 2004. Acraspisoides gen. nov. (Diptera: Therevidae: Agapophytinae): a new genus of Stiletto-flies from Australia. Zootaxa 414: 1-15

Irwin, M.E. & Lyneborg, L. 1981. Chapter 37. Therevidae. pp. 513-523 in McAlpine, J.F., Peterson, B.V., Shewell, G.E., Teskey, H.J., Vockeroth, J.R. & Wood, D.M. (coordinators) (eds). Manual of Nearctic Diptera. Ottawa : Research Branch, Agriculture Canada. Monograph 27 Vol. 1 674 pp.

Irwin, M.E. & Lyneborg, L. 1989. Family Therevidae. pp. 353-358 in Evenhuis, N.L. (ed.). Catalog of the Diptera of the Australasian and Oceanian Regions. Honolulu and Leiden : Bishop Museum Press and E.J. Brill 1155 pp.

Lambkin, C.L. & Recsei, J.M. in Lambkin, C.L., Recsei, J.M. & Yeates, D.K. 2005. Systematic revision of Johnmannia Irwin and Lyneborg (Diptera: Therevidae): Atypical metallic stiletto flies from Australian mesic habitats. Zootaxa 866: 1-28

Lyneborg, L. 1992. Therevidae (Insecta: Diptera). pp. 1-139 in Fauna of New Zealand/ Ko te Aitanga Pepeke o Aotearoa. Auckland : DSIR Plant Protection/ Te Wahanga Manaaki Tupu 139 pp.

Lyneborg, L. 2001. The Australian Stiletto-flies of the Anabarhynchus Genus-group (Diptera: Therevidae). Leiden : Entomonograph, E.J.Brill Vol. 13 256 pp.

Mann, J.S. 1928. Revisional notes on Australian Therevidae. Part 1. The Australian Zoologist 5: 151-194

Mann, J.S. 1929. Revisional notes on Australian Therevidae. Part 2. The Australian Zoologist 6: 17-49

Mann, J.S. 1933. Revisional notes on Australian Therevidae. Part 3. The Australian Zoologist 7: 325-344

Metz, M.A., Webb D.A., & Irwin M.E. 2003. A review of the genus Psilocephala Zetterstedt (Diptera: Therevidae) with the description of four new genera. Studia Dipterologica 10: 227-266

Power, N. 1998. Temporal and spatial diversity of Therevidae in South East Queensland (Diptera: Therevidae). Honours Thesis. Department of Entomology, University of Queensland, Brisbane.

Winterton, S.L., Skevington, J.H. & Lambkin, C.L. 2005. Stiletto Flies of Australasia, including a Lucid3 interactive key to genera, available through your web-browser. California Department of Food & Agriculture, CSIRO Entomology Australia, and Agriculture Canada. http://www.cdfa.ca.gov/phpps/ppd/Lucid/Therevidae/Austherevid/key/Austherevid/Media/Html/opening_page.html

Winterton, S.L. & Ware, J.L. 2015. Phylogeny, divergence times and biogeography of window flies (Scenopinidae) and the therevoid clade (Diptera: Asiloidea). Systematic Entomology 40: 491–519 [Date published online 6 Jan. 2015] [507] (subfamily relationships discussed)

Winterton, S.L. in Winterton, S.L., Yang, L., Wiegmann, B.M. & Yeates, D.K. 2001. Phylogenetic revision of Agapophytinae subf. n. (Diptera: Therevidae) based on molecular and morphological evidence. Systematic Entomology 26: 173-211

Winterton S.L. & Irwin, M.E. in Winterton S.L., Irwin, M.E. & Yeates, D.K. 1999. Phylogenetic revision of the Taenogera Kröber genus-group (Diptera: Therevidae), with descriptions of two new genera. Australian Journal of Entomology 38: 274-290

 

History of changes

Published	As part of group	Action Date	Action Type	Compiler(s)
01-Feb-2019	DIPTERA Linnaeus, 1758	19-Dec-2018	MODIFIED
24-Dec-2015	THEREVIDAE	23-Jun-2015	MODIFIED	Dr Christine Lambkin
29-Jul-2013		21-Aug-2013	MODIFIED
10-May-2012		10-May-2012	MODIFIED
		12-Feb-2010	(import)