Family PHALACROCORACIDAE Reichenbach, 1853

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Family PHALACROCORACIDAE Reichenbach, 1853

Phalacrocoracinae Reichenbach, H.G.L. 1849. Die vollstiindigste Naturgeschichte des In-und Auslandes. Abt. II. Vögel, Band I. Avium systema naturale. Das natiirliche System der Vögel. Vorliiufer einer Iconographie der Arten der Vogel aller Welttheile. Dresden & Leipzig : Expeditionder vollstiindigsten Naturgeschichte pp.viii + 36 + xxxi pp. and 100 uncoloured plates. [Date published 1849-1850] [Phalacrocoracidae Reichenbach, 1849-50 (1836) (Phalacrocorax Brisson, 1760) conserved in preference to Halieinae Sundevall, 1836 (Halieus Illiger, 1811 = Phalacrocorax) and conditionally in preference to Carbonidae Brandt, 1849 (Carbo Lacepede, 1799 = Phalacrocorax) [Art. 40(b)]].
Type genus:
Phalacrocorax Brisson, 1760.
Secondary source:
Bock, W.J. 1994. History and nomenclature of avian family-group names. Bulletin of the American Museum of Natural History 222: 1-281 [131].
Carbonidae Brandt, J.F. 1839. Beiträge zur Kenntniss der Naturgeschichte der Vögel mit besonterer Beziehung auf Skeletbau und vergleichende Zoologie. Mémoires de l'Académie Imperiale des Sciences de St. Petersbourg Ser. 6. Sci. Math. Phys. Nat. 58(2; Sci. Nat. 3): 91-237 + 18 plates [113] [nomen oblitum].
Type genus:
Carbo Lacépède, 1799.
Secondary source:
Bock, W.J. 1994. History and nomenclature of avian family-group names. Bulletin of the American Museum of Natural History 222: 1-281 [131].
Phalacrocoracinae Bonaparte, C.L. 1854. Conspectus systematis ornithologiae. Annales des Sciences Naturelles, Zoologie 4 1(2): 105-152.
Type genus:
Phalacrocorax Brisson, 1760.
Secondary source:
Brodkorb, P. 1963. Catalogue of fossil birds. Part 1 (Archaeopterygiformes through Ardeiformes). Bulletin of the Florida State Museum. Biological Sciences 7: 179-293 [249].
Graculinae Jerdon, T.C. 1862. The birds of India; being a natural history of all the birds known to inhabit continental India. Calcutta : Military Orphan Press Vol. 2(2) pp. 442-876, xxxii. [1862-1864] [860].
Type genus:
Graculus Koch, 1816 [a junior synonym of Phalacrocorax, Brisson, 1760. Not Graculinae G.R. Gray, 1841 (1831) [Gracula Linnaeus, 1758] (= Sturnidae)].
Secondary source:
Bock, W.J. 1994. History and nomenclature of avian family-group names. Bulletin of the American Museum of Natural History 222: 1-281 [131].
Leucocarboninae Siegel-Causey, D. 1988. Phylogeny of the Phalacrocoracidae. Condor 90(4): 885–905 [890].
Type genus:
Leucocarbo Bonaparte, C.L., 1857 [a junior synonym of Phalacrocorax, Brisson, 1760].
Secondary source:
Bock, W.J. 1994. History and nomenclature of avian family-group names. Bulletin of the American Museum of Natural History 222: 1-281 [131].

Introduction

The Phalacrocoracidae is generally recognised as consisting of two groups, the cormorants and shags; shags have crested or tufted crowns. Cormorants are medium to large sized; generally having black plumage with a metallic sheen although Southern Hemisphere family members may be counter-shaded, having white underparts and throats or grey plumages. Currently 41 species are recognised within three genera although there is considerable uncertainty about their genetic and specific status. Five species occur In Australia: two of these are black and the other three pied black with white underparts. They inhabit salt and fresh water coastal areas, rivers and lakes in numbers ranging from singles to large numbers.

The sexes of all species are similar in external morphology and have bare facial skin that, along with their bill, lores, gular skin and eyes, may be colourful and become brighter in teh breeding season. Cormorants swim low in the water and dive from the surface, pursuing their prey by manipulation of the feet and wings. Owing to a lack of natural feather waterproofing, all phalacrocoracids are required to spend time perched with their wings and tail spread to dry. Flight between wetlands may be undertaken alone or may involve large numbers; groups usually fly at some height in a single extended line.

Each species has a long neck and their bills have a strongly hooked tip. Four Australian species (Phalacrocorax) have a long bill, while the fifth, Microcarbo melanoleucos, differs in having, relatively, a shorter bill. The feet are totipalmate, with webbing between all four toes. The legs are short, strong and placed well back on the body. All are piscivores, taking a variety of small fish, but their diet may also include crustaceans, amphibians and even water snakes. Before consummation the prey is brought to the surface. While many phalacrocoracids feed individually, they can often congregate in what appear to be organised communal flocks for fishing.

Cormorants are gregarious when breeding; small or large breeding colonies form using waterside trees, rocky islets, or cliff ledges. These are easily identified by the large deposits of guano deposited on the surrounding rocks and/or vegetation. Breeding has been described as ‘promiscuous, polygamous and polyandrous’ although they are principally monogamous; the birds pair temporarily during the breeding season. Little ceremony exists among these pairs. The nest is an untidy structure built using sticks or seaweed, and always associated with water; it is placed either on the ground (cliff ledges) or in trees. Egg clutches vary from two to six; these are elliptical and pale bluish green with a chalky encrustation. Adults share incubation and caring for the young which includes feeding them through regurgitation.