Family LOLIGINIDAE Lesueur, 1821

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• LOLIGINIDAE Lesueur, C.A. 1821. Descriptions of several new species of cuttlefish. Journal of the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia 2: 86-101.

  Type genus:

   Loligo Lamarck, 1798.
• PICKFORDIATEUTHIDAE Voss, G.L. 1953. A new family, genus and species of myopsid squid from the Florida keys. Bulletin of Marine Science of the Gulf and Caribbean 2: 602-609.

 

Introduction

Members of the family Loliginidae d’Orbigny, 1839 are characterised by a transparent cornea covering the eyes. They are common in inshore waters worldwide. Some 42 nominal species are known, referred to 10 genera: Loligo Lamarck, 1798; Sepioteuthis Blainville, 1824; Lolliguncula Steenstrup, 1881; Loliolus Steenstrup, 1856; Doryteuthis Naef, 1912; Alloteuthis Wülker, 1920; Uroteuthis Rehder, 1945; Pickfordiateuthis Voss, 1953; Heterololigo Natsukari, 1984 and Afrololigo Brakoniecki, 1986. The generic level classification, however, remains unstable. Six species in three genera are known from Australian waters, but some of the ‘species’ are now considered to involve several cryptic species (Yeatman & Benzie 1993; Hall personal communication).

Loliginids were first reported from Australian waters by Quoy & Gaimard (1832) who described Sepioteuthis australis and S. bilineata from Westernport Bay, Victoria. Another species, Loligo australis, was described by Gray (1849) from Newcastle, New South Wales; the description is brief and the type specimen has deteriorated to the point that the name cannot be applied with certainty to any loliginid in the area. Loligo etheridgei, described by Berry (1918) from an unknown locality in southern Australia, was regarded by Natsukari and Okutani (1975) as a junior synonym of Loligo chinensis. However, it is now known that Loligo chinensis and Loligo etheridgei are not found in Australian waters.

Lu & Tait (1983) reviewed Australian Sepioteuthis, concluding that only two species, S. lessoniana and S. australis, occur in Australian inshore waters. Lu et al. (1985) described a species from Australia in Loliolus, L. noctiluca, and reviewed the taxonomy of the genus, and Vecchione et al. (1998) suggested that L. notiluca should be assigned to Uroteuthis (Photololigo) rather than Loliolus. Yeatman & Benzie (1993) and Yeatman (1994) reported on taxonomic problems among the remaining Australian loliginids. Work is currently underway to resolve these issues.

Various loliginid species inhabit the shelf and upper slope of the world's oceans, but in none are found in the Arctic and Antarctic regions. In Australasian waters, Loliolus noctiluca is endemic and known only from the inshore waters of eastern Australia including Tasmania, and the Gulf of Carpentaria, to the Gulf of Papua (Lu et al. 1985). Sepioteuthis australis is known only from southern Australia and northern New Zealand (Lu & Tait 1983). Sepioteuthis lessoniana, a widely distributed Indo-west Pacific species, is known from northern Australia. Several species of Loligo (= Photololigo of Natsukari) occur in northern Australian waters.

Loliginid squids eat a wide range of food species, including crustaceans, polychaetes, fishes and cephalopods. The Californian species, Loligo opalescens, preys on euphausiids, calanoid copepods, cumanaceans, mysids, shrimps, anchovy and squids (Karpov & Cailliet 1978; Fields 1965). Fields (1965) and Karpov & Cailliet (1978) described differences in food preferences of Loligo opalescens associated with growth, habitat, sex and sexual maturity. Similarly, Vovk (1972) reported that smaller Loligo pealei eat crustaceans (euphausiids and decapods) but when larger, eat fish and other squids.

Loliginids in turn are preyed upon by many vertebrates such as fishes, seabirds and marine mammals. Loligo opalescens, in Monterey Bay, was taken by 19 fish species, 13 seabird species and eight marine mammal species (Morejohn et al. 1978). Loligo vulgaris was eaten by cetaceans, sharks, tunas and seabirds (Worms 1983). In Australian waters, Sepioteuthis australis has been found in the stomach contents of the pilot whale, Globicephala melas, and the bottlenose dolphin, Tursiops truncatus (Gales et al. 1992), as well as the Australian fur seal, Arctocephalus pusillus doriferus (Gales et al. 1994).

Mating behaviour and other aspects of reproduction in Loliginidae have been studied in many non-Australian species. Arnold (1962, 1965) reported that in Loligo pealei and Sepioteuthis sepioidea, males and females form pairs, the male pursuing the female and protecting her from other males. The courting is initiated by an aggressive male who selects a female and swims parallel to her, displaying his courtship colour pattern. The female typically shows little initial response. Later, the female responds by swimming parallel to the male, displaying her own courtship pattern. Similar courting behaviour has been observed in Sepioteuthis lessoniana in Japan (Segawa 1987) and Loligo opalescens in California (Hurley 1977).

Two mating postures have been observed in Loligo pealei. A head-to-head posture culminates in the transfer of spermatophores to the buccal seminal receptacle of the female (Drew 1911; Arnold 1962). A second posture involves the mating pair aligning parallel to each other, the male grasping the female around the mantle behind the head. The male then inserts its hectocotylised arm into its mantle cavity, picks up the spermatophores and transfers them to the female by way of her funnel, then cements them to the inside of her mantle near the oviduct (Arnold 1962).

In Loligo opalescens, the male copulates with the female by grasping her from below and inserting his right ventral arm into the female mantle cavity. The right arm is then withdrawn as the hectocotylised left ventral arm carrying spermatophores is inserted in its place (Hurley 1977). The head-to-head position of mating also occurs in this species (Fields 1965). Mating behaviour in Sepioteuthis lessoniana is similar that described above except that the head-to-head posture has not been observed (Segawa 1987).

Spawning in loliginids involves the passage of eggs from the oviduct out through the funnel. The eggs are enveloped in the secretion from the oviducal and nidamental glands. The number of eggs per egg capsule varies with species. The relatively long egg capsules of Loligo opalescens (length 6.0–9.0 cm) contain on average 156 eggs each (Yang et al. 1986). In Sepioteuthis sepioidea each capsule contains only two to four eggs (LaRoe 1971). Similarly, S. lessoniana has only two to nine eggs in each capsule (Choe & Oshima 1961) and S. australis (as S. bilineata) of New Zealand has two to six eggs per capsule (Larcombe & Russell 1971). In southern Australia, this last species also has capsules containing up to six eggs (Smith et al. 1989). An egg mass is made up of many egg capsules.

Egg laying in Loligo pealei is stimulated visually. The presence of a naturally laid egg mass or an artificial egg mass made of water-filled polyethylene tubing was found to induce animals to produce egg capsules; several females often contribute to the same egg mass (Arnold 1962). Several individuals of Sepioteuthis australis have also been observed laying eggs on the same egg mass (Larcombe & Russell 1971). Females of Loligo opalescens die after spawning, resulting in a mass mortality in the spawning area (Fields 1965); this phenomenon has not been observed in other species.

Most loliginids studied have been found to be fast growing and short lived. Fields (1965) estimated that Loligo opalescens spawn and die at three years of age. He also inferred that males have a life span of between one and four years with the majority living about three years. From growth rings in the statoliths, Spratt (1978) estimated the life span to be about one to two years. Laboratory rearing indicates that Loligo opalescens is capable of spawning at one year of age (Hixon 1983).

Based on his study of the growth rings in statoliths, Jackson (1990a) concluded that in the tropical waters of North Queensland, Sepioteuthis lessoniana reaches sexual maturity in less than 100 days; all the specimens studied (75–213 mm and 75–184 mm ML for males and females, respectively) were less than six months old. Tetracycline staining techniques indicated that, under laboratory conditions, daily growth rings are formed in Sepioteuthis lessoniana, Loligo chinensis and Loliolus noctiluca (Jackson 1990a, 1990b). These two species reach adult size in less than 200 days (Jackson & Choat 1992). Jackson (2004) summarised the results of extensve growth and life history studies and concluded that validation studies on loliginids continue to support the assumption that statolith increments are laid down daily (although not all researchers agree with this view (see Hunt et al.2011.

The monophyly of the loliginids is well-supported (e.g. Anderson (2000) but systermatics within the Loliginidae remains problematic.

 

Excluded Taxa

Misidentifications

LOLIGINIDAE: Loligo australis Gray, 1849 — Gray, J.E. 1849. Catalogue of the Mollusca in the Collection of the British Museum. 1. Cephalopoda Antepedia. London : British Museum (Natural History) 164 pp. [71] (type data: Holotype BMNH 1947.3.19.2, Newcastle, NSW); Lu, C.C. & Phillips, J.U. 1985. An annotated checklist of Cephalopoda from Australian waters. Occasional Papers of the Museum of Victoria 2: 21-36 [28] (considered as nomen dubium); Lu, C.C. 2001. Cephalopoda. pp. 129-308 in Wells, A. & Houston, W.W.K. (eds). Zoological Catalogue of Australia. Vol. 17.2 Mollusca: Aplacophora, Polyplacophora, Scaphopoda, Cephalopoda. Melbourne : CSIRO Publishing, Australia xii 353 pp. [Date published 3 July 2001] [212] (Loligo australis was described by Gray (1849) from Newcastle, New South Wales; the description is brief and the type specimen has deteriorated to the point that the name cannot be applied with certainty to any loliginid in the area)

LOLIGINIDAE: Loligo Schneider, 1784 — Jereb, P., Vecchione, M. & Roper, C.F.E. 2010. Family Loliginidae. pp. 38-117 in Jereb, P. & Roper, C.F.E. (Eds). Cephalopods of the world. An annotated and illustrated catalogue of species known to date. Volume 2. Myopsid and Oegopsid Squids. FAO Species Catalogue for Fishery Purposes. No. 4. Rome : FAO Vol. 2 pp. 1-605. [40] (the genus Loligo is restricted to the Eastern Atlantic Ocean and the Mediterranean Sea)

 

Diagnosis

Loliginids are characterised by having the eyes covered by a transparent corneal membrane. The paired locking apparatus is straight and simple. Each of the seven buccal lappets carries a few small suckers, and the buccal connectives attach on the ventral borders of the ventral arms.

The mantle is elongate with the posterior end tapered. The fins are oval, elongate-rhomboidal or heart-shaped, located either on the posterior end of the mantle or marginally on the mantle. The fin lengths range from about half the mantle length to almost equal length. The arms are equipped with two rows of suckers. The tentacles are not retractile and have four rows of suckers on the tentacular club. In mature males, the left ventral arm is hectocotylised, except in Lolliguncula, which has both ventral arms hectocotylised. The shells (gladius) are quill-shaped, leaf-shaped or long, slender with conus long; some sexual dimorphism is apparent in the gladius of some species, the female having the gladius wider than the male.

 

General References

Adam, W. 1939. Céphalopoda. 1e Partie. Le genre Sepioteuthis Blainville, 1824. Siboga-Expéditie Report 55: 1-33 l pl.

Anderson, F.E. 2000. Phylogeny and historical biogeography of the loliginid squids (Mollusca: Cephalopoda) bases on mitochondrial DNA sequence data. Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution 15(2): 191-214

Arnold, J.M. 1962. Mating behaviour and social structure in Loligo pealei. Biological Bulletin. Marine Biological Laboratory (Woods Hole) 123(1): 53-57

Arnold, J.M. 1965. Observations on the mating behaviour of the squid Sepioteuthis sepioidea. Bulletin of Marine Science 15(1): 216-222

Berry, S.S. 1918. Report on the Cephalopoda obtained by the F.I.S. Endeavour in the Great Australian Bight and other southern Australian localities. Biological Results of the Fishing Experiments carried on by the F.I.S. Endeavour 1909-1914 4: 203-298 pls 59-88

Choe, S. & Ohshima, Y. 1961. On the embryonal development and the growth of the squid, Sepioteuthis lessoniana Lesson. Venus 21(2): 462-476 [Japanese Journal of Malacology]

Drew, G.A. 1911. Sexual activities of the squid Loligo pealei I. Journal of Morphology 22: 327-360

Fields, W.G. 1965. The structure, development, food relations, reproduction, and the life history of the squid Loligo opalescens Berry. Fisheries Bulletin, California Department of Fish and Game 131: 1-108

Gales, R., Pemberton, D., Clarke, M. & Lu, C.C. 1992. Stomach contents of long-finned pilot whales (Globicephala melas) and bottlenose dolphins (Tursiops truncatus) in Tasmania. Marine Mammal Science 8(4): 405-413

Gales, R., Pemberton, D., Lu, C.C. & Clarke, M.R. 1993. Cephalopod diet of the Australian fur seal: variation due to location, season and sample type. Australian Journal of Marine and Freshwater Research 44: 657-671

Gray, J.E. 1849. Catalogue of the Mollusca in the Collection of the British Museum. 1. Cephalopoda Antepedia. London : British Museum (Natural History) 164 pp.

Hixon, R.F. 1983. Loligo opalescens. pp. 95-114 in Boyle, P.R. (ed.). Cephalopod Life Cycles. Vol. 1. Species Accounts. London : Academic Press xvii 474 pp.

Hunt, K,V., Steer, M.A., & Gillanders, B.M 2011. Validating age in southern calamary (Sepioteuthis australis) over seasonal and life history extremes. Journal of the Marine Biological Association of the United Kingdom 91(4): 857-863

Hurley, A.C. 1977. Mating behaviour of the squid Loligo opalescens. Marine Behaviour and Physiology 4: 195-203

Jackson, G.D. 1990. Age and growth of the tropical nearshore loliginid squid Sepioteuthis lessoniana determined from statolith growth-ring analysis. United States Fisheries Bulletin 88: 113-118

Jackson, G.D. 1990. The use of tetracycline staining techniques to determine statolith growth ring periodicity in the tropical loliginid squids Loliolus noctiluca and Loligo chinensis. Veliger 33(3): 389-393

Jackson, G.D. 2004. Advances in defining the life histories of myopsid squid. Marine and Freshwater Research 55(4): 357-365

Jackson, G.D. & Choat, J.H. 1992. Growth in tropical cephalopods: an analysis based on statolith microstructure. Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences [formerly Journal of the Fisheries Research Board of Canada] 49(2): 218-228

Karpov, K.A. & Cailliet, G.M. 1978. Feeding dynamics of Loligo opalescens. Fisheries Bulletin, California Department of Fish and Game 169: 45-66

Larcombe, M.F. & Russell, B.C. 1971. Egg laying behaviour of the broad squid, Sepioteuthis bilineata. New Zealand Journal of Marine and Freshwater Research 5(1): 3-11

LaRoe, E.T. 1971. The culture and maintenance of the loliginid squids Sepioteuthis sepioidea and Doryteuthis plei. Marine Biology, Berlin 9: 9-25

Lu, C.C., Roper, C.F.E. & Tait, R.W. 1985. A revision of Loliolus (Cephalopoda; Loliginidae), including L. noctiluca, a new species of squid from Australian waters. Proceedings of the Royal Society of Victoria 97: 59-85

Lu, C.C. & Tait, R.W. 1983. Taxonomic studies on Sepioteuthis Blainville (Cephalopoda: Loliginidae) from the Australian region. Proceedings of the Royal Society of Victoria 95: 181-204

Morejohn, G.V., Harvey, J.T. & Krasnow, L.T. 1978. The importance of Loligo opalescens in the food web of marine vertebrates in Monterey Bay, California. Fisheries Bulletin, California Department of Fish and Game 169: 67-98

Natsukuri, Y. & Okutani, T. 1975. Taxonomic and morphological studies on the loliginid squids. 1. Identity of Loligo chinensis Gray, 1849. Redescription of the type specimen and taxonomic review. Venus 34: 83-91

Quoy, J.R.C. & Gaimard, J.P. 1832. Mollusques. pp. 1–320 in, Zoologie du voyage de l'Astrolabe sous les ordres du Capitane Dumont d'Urville, pendant les années 1826–1829. Zoologie. 2 vols Paris : J. Tastu, Editeur-Imprimeur.

Segawa, S. 1987. Life history of the oval squid, Sepioteuthis lessoniana in Kominato and adjacent waters Central Honshu, Japan. Journal of the Tokyo University of Fisheries [formerly Journal of the Tokyo College of Fisheries] 74(2): 67-105

Smith, B.J., Black, J.H. & Shepherd, S.A. 1989. Molluscan egg masses and capsules. pp. 841-891 in Shepherd, S.A. & Thomas, I.M. (eds). Marine Invertebrates of Southern Australia. Part II. Adelaide : S. Aust. Gov. Print. Div.

Spratt, J.D. 1978. Age and growth of the market squid Loligo opalescens Berry, in Monterey Bay. Fisheries Bulletin, California Department of Fish and Game 169: 35-44

Vecchione, M., Brakoniecki, T.F., Natsukari, Y. & Hanlon, R.T. 1998. A provisional generic classification of the family Loliginidae. Smithsonian Contributions to Zoology 586: 215-222

Vovk, A.N. 1972. Feeding habits of the North American squid Loligo pealei Les. Trudy Atlanticheskii Nauchno-Issledovatel'skii Institut Rybnogo Khozyaistva i Okeanografii 42: 141-151 [English transl., Fish. Mar. Serv., Can., Transl. Ser. No. 3304]

Worms, J. 1983. Loligo vulgaris. pp. 143-157 in Boyle, P.R. (ed.). Cephalopod Life Cycles. Vol. 1. Species Accounts. London : Academic Press xvii 474 pp.

Yang, W.T., Hixon, R.F., Turk, P.E., Krejci, M.E., Hulet, W.H. & Hanlon, R.T. 1986. Growth, behaviour, and sexual maturation of the market squid, Loligo opalescens, cultured through the life cycle. Fisheries Bulletin 84(4): 771-798

Yeatman, J. 1994. Genetic and morphological aspects of Australian Photololigo spp. (Loliginidae: Cephalopoda). Unpublished PhD Thesis, James Cook University, Townsville, Australia 279 pp.

Yeatman, J. & Benzie, J.A.H. 1993. Cryptic speciation in Loligo from northern Australia. pp. 641-652 in Okutani, T., O'Dor, R.K. & Kubodera, T. (eds). Recent Advances in Cephalopod Fisheries. Tokyo : Tokai Univ. Press.

 

History of changes

Published	As part of group	Action Date	Action Type	Compiler(s)
05-Jun-2024	CEPHALOPODA Cuvier, 1795	05-Jun-2024	MODIFIED	Dr Mandy Reid
16-Jun-2022	CEPHALOPODA	15-May-2023	MODIFIED
20-Mar-2014	TEUTHIDA	05-Jun-2024	MODIFIED	Dr Julian Finn (NMV)
		12-Feb-2010	(import)